Knowledge and Truth
Four Paths of knowledge

John, Sam, Henry, James, and Max all say it is raining. Their answer to the question, “How do you know it is raining?” illustrates their path to knowledge.
Sam: “John just came in from outside, and he told me that it is raining.”
John: “I was just outside, and I saw that it was raining.”
Henry: “I can see through the window that people are carrying open umbrellas and I know that people carry open umbrellas only when it is raining.”
James: “I can hear the rain hitting things.”
Max: “I can feel it in my bones.”

Each one got his knowledge that it is raining in a different way:
Sam found out by getting a report from an AUTHORITY, somebody else who had made the direct observation.
John found out by direct observation or experience: EMPIRICISM
Henry found out by reasoning from information that he had: RATIONALISM.
James made an INFERENCE from physical sensations
Max made an INFERENCE from feelings

Booby traps exist along the path to knowledge
All who “know” have assumptions that limit their ability to see truly:
Some know what their assumptions are; others do not.
Some assumptions are feelings; some are inferences; some are scripts.
Some assumptions are shared; others are not; many are questionable.
Some who claim knowledge are dishonest; others are not.
Some can communicate well; others cannot.
Some receive reports accurately; many do not.
Some can’t see the trees for the forest. Details are ignored.
Some can’t see the forest for the trees. Context is ignored
Some use good reasoning; others do not.
Some test their reasoning against standards; others do not.
Some use good standards; others do not.
Some ideas come from trustworthy sources; others do not.
Some ideas are consistent with feelings and past experience; others are not.
Some ideas are consistent with other accepted knowledge; others are not.
Some ideas are consistent in methodology used to prove them; others are not.
Some ideas are consistent with tested values; others are not.
All are limited, more or less severely by these traps, so much so that some experts have claimed that truth cannot be known.
Even known facts may be doubted.
Doubt also comes from assumptions, and may be doubted as well.




1. Authorities = Reports, to be good ones, must do the following:
1. Be trustworthy, honest, unbiased, and guileless, valuing truth over ego, money, reputation or any preconceived theory or idea.
2. Follow proper conditions for observation. (See Empiricism, Reasoning, and Revelation)
3. Clarify the essential information about their observations:
a. The context of the inquiry
b. The purposes or questions being asked in the observation
c. Their assumptions and biases.
d. Alternative assumptions, motives and sources.
e. That which they have to gain or lose by what they say other than truth?
f. The methods used in their observing
g. The conclusions reached and why they are justified
h. Other possible conclusions and why they are or are not justified
i. Implications of the conclusions on other areas of inquiry.
4. Be first hand. Second hand accounts are useful, but less authoritative.
5. Multiple authorities agreeing make an observation more likely to be true.

2. Empiricism = Observers, to be good ones, must do the following
1. Pay attention to what is observable
2. Anticipate possibilities without closing the mind to anything else.
3. Adjust for the general law of relativity, which applies to all perception: what is observed depends on the place and movement from which we are observing, and must be adjusted accordingly.
4. Control observations to prevent error as much as possible.
a. Make sure the population of application is accurately represented
b. Use control observations for comparison to eliminate biases.
c. Use random assignment of subjects and treatment where control is lacking.
d. Use double blind studies to eliminate experimenter influence.
e. Use reliable and valid measures
f. Use repeated measures.
g. Vary the order of observations to avoid practice effects
5. Replication by other observers is required

3. Rationalism =Reasoning must do the following
1. Use good logic (the IF-THEN game) and critical (vital) thinking
a. Clarify the purpose, goal, or objective
b. Clarify the overall intention of the thinking.
c. Clarify the values and issues involved.
d. Clarify the assumptions made
e. Clarify the support for and context of the assumptions
f. Clarify the relations between ideas being considered.
g. Clarify the conclusions made from reasoning
h. Clarify the implications of the conclusions
i. Identify possible applications of the conclusions
2. Adduction (the AS IF game) explains the reaching of conclusions, hypothesis and prediction, concluding lacking information by using what is already “known.”
a. Assume what has happened before will happen again.
b. Assume that similarities can be used to infer the unknown through scripts (stories) based on experience, personal or vicarious
c. Scripts have typical beginnings, ordered events, and outcomes.
d. Ordered events are usually assumed to be in the same order.
e. Missing information can be deducted from what is assumed in the script.
f. Inference may fill in blanks in the beginnings, the events, or the outcomes or beyond what is known, even to other scripts.
g. Scripts are usually developed in a social context, in experience and conversation with others
h. Scripts become resistant to change, and change creates disorder for some time while new scripts are being developed.

3. Historical shared scripts (isms), each manmade and flawed, are available for study:
a. Idealism: Scripting things as they should be if perfect.
b. Realism: Scripting things as they are revealed by facts.
c. Perennialism: Scripting things as everlasting
d. Existentialism: Scripting things as being guided by one’s will, not experience.
e. Pragmatism (reconstructionism): Scripting things as being based on results.
f. Essentialism: Scripting things as being based on fundamental qualities
g. Materialism: Scripting things as being based on possessions
h. Deism: Scripting things based on belief in man’s reasoned personal god.
i. Theism: Scripting things based on belief in a personal God revealed to man by personal contact.
j. Optimism: Scripting things as positive (bad things are chance, temporary, and specific)
k. Pessimism: Scripting things as negative, (bad things are my fault, lasting, inclusive)
…etc.

.4. Revelation: knowledge received from Spiritual, Eternal sources
Revelation may not be needed in the above examples. But for many important things, it is vital, because revelation deals with truth, not approximations of truth.
1. Some of those who have had personal experiences with God have shared those in scriptures. These experiences are treated as authoritative when the person giving the report it trustworthy, as is required with any observer. With the revelations that have been given, it is clear that one who breaks the basic commandments of God are not trustworthy observers, no matter how nice or persuasive they may be, unless they have thoroughly repented of their sins, i.e. they have confessed them and forsaken them.
2. Personal spiritual experiences are possible to all who are willing to qualify themselves for them. But other experiences can be mistaken for revelation, and must be tested for truth.
a. Do they agree with trustworthy sources?
b. Are they consistent with other spiritual experiences?
c. Does their application increase one’s loving and doing good?
Do they produce good fruit: peace and righteousness?
d. Does their application make one a better person?
e. Do they lead away from pride and selfishness?
f. Does their application lead to worship of God?
Do they testify of Christ?

3. Truth from Revelation is sought by keeping commandments:
a. Ask God in prayer verbally and behaviorally to reveal the answers to you
b. Seek knowledge in His word, the scriptures, the words of true living prophets, and in your honest, loving, listening heart.
c. Knock by applying what is known and by sharing your testimony with others in love, meekness, and holiness, and serving others in helping them to know the spiritual truth you have had revealed to you.
d. Live by every word that proceeds from the mouth of God.
e. If you follow spiritual promptings, you will know of their truth
f. If they testify of Christ, they are true.
g. If they prompt behavior that is good, they are true.
h. Be sure to avoid pride, hiding sin, or trying to use unrighteous dominion. Repent when mistakes are made.